[172] Maxentius, meanwhile, had seized power in Rome on October 28, 306, and soon brought toleration to all Christians within his realm. [352], Historian G.E.M. But once Constantine had defeated his last rival emperor Licinius in AD 324, the last of Constantines restraint disappeared and a Christian emperor (or at least one who championed the Christian cause) ruled over the entire empire. [123], On February 23, 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built Christian church at Nicomedia be razed, its scriptures burned, and its treasures seized. [131] Because units of limitanei operated in one area, had their own camps, and often recruited from the same area, they tended to maintain better relations with the locals than the comitatenses and palatini, who would often be transferred to other areas, and were often quartered in civilian homes. His reign saw the end of the Western Roman Empire following the deposition of Clarke, 616; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 510. Constantine was also responsible for a series of important secular reforms that ranged from reorganizing the Roman Empires currency system to restructuring Romes armed forces. Marcellinus, himself a veteran soldier, is regarded by scholars as a reliable and valuable source, but he largely fails to remedy the deficiencies of the Notitia as regards army and unit strength or units in existence, as he is rarely specific about either. Unauthorized use is prohibited. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, second edition, Liverpool University Press, 1996. pp. [295] The replacement is only attested to via epigraphic remains, like stone inscriptions; Eusebius does not mention Valentinianus anywhere in his writings. And so it is that the Greek and Roman pantheon look very similar, but for different names.if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[580,400],'roman_empire_net-medrectangle-4','ezslot_3',106,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-roman_empire_net-medrectangle-4-0'); An example of such mixed origins is the goddess Diana to whom the Roman king Servius Tullius built the temple on the Aventine Hill. (see Strategy, below), Edward Luttwak's Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire (1976) re-launched the thesis of Theodor Mommsen that in the 3rd and early 4th centuries, the empire's defence strategy mutated from "forward defence" (or "preclusive defence") in the Principate to "defence-in-depth" in the 4th century. Each was commanded by a magister militum, who also reported direct to the emperor. [268], In the 4th century, the production of weapons and equipment was highly centralised (and presumably standardised) in a number of major state-run arms factories, or fabricae, documented in the Notitia. In 31 BCE there occurred the major naval battle near Actium between the fleets of Octavian and Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Recruits had to be physically fit and meet the traditional minimum height requirement of 6 Roman feet (5ft 10in, 178cm) until 367, when it was reduced to 5 Roman feet and 3 Roman palms (5ft 7in, 170cm). Aurelius Victor describes the circle around Diocletian as an, Later dates are possible, but discouraged by the statement in the, Davies disputes Barnes' identification of Constantine's unnamed emperor (. X 22,4), Based on: Jones (1964) 634; Goldsworthy (1995) 202; Holder (1980) 906, Milner NP. [174] This picture is much in line with the 2nd-century position. In the Republic enemy arms could be burned and offerings made to the gods, especially Mars, Minerva and Vulcan. This in effect confirmed the churchs more political outlook, as until the prestige of the bishoprics had been ranked according to the churchs apostolic history. Most of the Roman gods and goddesses were a blend of several religious influences. A multitude of festivals were held to appease the gods.if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[250,250],'roman_empire_net-banner-1','ezslot_8',108,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-roman_empire_net-banner-1-0');if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[250,250],'roman_empire_net-banner-1','ezslot_9',108,'0','1'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-roman_empire_net-banner-1-0_1'); .banner-1-multi-108{border:none !important;display:block !important;float:none !important;line-height:0px;margin-bottom:15px !important;margin-left:0px !important;margin-right:0px !important;margin-top:15px !important;max-width:100% !important;min-height:250px;min-width:250px;padding:0;text-align:center !important;}. 500. Festivals could be somber, dignified occasions, as well as joyful events. The beginnings of Christianity are very blurry, as far as historical fact is concerned. [166] Such forces were employed by the Romans throughout imperial history e.g. [180] This compares with 25 years in both legions and auxilia during the Principate. [292] On December 13, 309, Firmilianus condemned some Egyptians arrested at Ascalon (Ashkelon, Israel) on their way to visit the confessors in Cilicia. [205] Probably the most accurate comparison is by known pay levels: NOTE: Ranks correspond only in pay scale, not necessarily in function. [287], But the validity of Luttwak's thesis has been strongly contested by a number of scholars, especially in a powerful critique by B. Isaac, the author of a leading study of the Roman army in the East (1992). Initially there was three members to the college of epulones (banqueting managers), though later their number was enlarged to seven. The most extravagant legends, as they conduced to the honour of the church, were applauded by the credulous multitude, countenanced by the power of the clergy, and attested by the suspicious evidence of ecclesiastical history. Persecutory laws were nullified by different emperors (Galerius with the Edict of Serdica in 311) at different times, but Constantine and Licinius' Edict of Milan in 313 has traditionally marked the end of the persecution. [127] The generalissimo was generally known as the magister utriusque militiae (abbreviation: MVM, literally "master of both services", i.e. Governors of provinces on the frontiers were stripped of command of the troops stationed there in favour of purely military officers called duces limitis ("border commanders"). Web312: Constantine the Great has a vision of a cross; In 312, one of the emperors, Constantine the Great, on his way to fight his co-emperor Maxentius, had a vision of a cross with the words, "In this sign conquer," written under it. [286], The essential feature of defence-in-depth, according to Luttwak, was an acceptance that the Roman frontier provinces themselves would become the main combat-zone in operations against barbarian threats, rather than the barbarian lands across the border. In 167 BCE there were 8 legions but by 50 BCE this number had risen to around 15 legions. Coulston, J.C.N. [153] Limitanei regiments often joined the comitatus for specific campaigns, and were sometimes retained by the comitatus long-term with the title of pseudocomitatenses, implying adequate combat capability. It was divided into three grades, of which only the first, comes primi ordinis (lit. Civil wars, invasions, and disease were rending the empire so badly that the era is regarded as the Crisis of the Third Century. [160], A distinctive feature of the late army is the appearance of independent units of artillery, which during the Principate appears to have been integral to the legions. These treasures were largely given to the Christian churches instead. Clarke argues against reading a large advancement in either the numbers or the social status of Christians into this data. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield or in a quiver. See also: Barnes, "Legislation"; de Sainte-Croix, "Persecuted? Garrisoned by a mix of Roman and native troops, their purpose was to protect Dacian and Sarmatian tributary tribes of the Tisza and Wallachian plains against Gothic incursions. [213] The status of regimental commanders varied enormously depending on the grade of their unit. However, as circumstances and peoples view of the world changed, individuals whose personal religious needs remained unsatisfied turned increasingly during the first century AD to the mysteries, which were of Greek origin, and to the cults of the east. [19] This had the effect of breaking down the distinction between the citizen legions and the auxiliary regiments. [258] His eschatology runs directly counter to Tetrarchic claims to "renewal". [152] In the judgment of historian Roger Rees, there was no logical necessity for this second edict; that Diocletian issued one indicates that he was either unaware the first edict was being carried out, or that he felt it was not working as quickly as he needed it to. The Imperial army on the march was first and foremost well-ordered. These individual experts specialized in the knowledge of prayers and rituals specific to their particular deity. The highest rank of Magister militum praesentalis (lit. Eusebius does not explain this sudden halt, but it coincides with the replacement of Firmilianus with Valentinianus, a man appointed at some time before Galerius's death. At Diocaesarea (Sepphoris, Israel) in the spring of 308, 97 Christian confessors were received by Firmilianus from the porphyry mines in the Thebaid. Although protectores were supposed to be soldiers who had risen through the ranks by meritorious service, it became a widespread practice to admit to the corps young men from outside the army (often the sons of senior officers). Much of our evidence for 4th century army unit deployments is contained in a single document, the Notitia Dignitatum, compiled c. 395420, a manual of all late Roman public offices, military and civil. If the Roman state entertained temples and rituals for the benefit of the greater gods, then the Romans in the privacy of their own homes also worshipped their domestic deities. Decades ago, extinction loomed for these gentle marine mammals in Florida. E. Leigh Gibson, "Jewish Antagonism or Christian Polemic: The Case of the. Commanders could hold (as Caesar himself did) a consilium or war council with their officers to present and discuss strategies for attack and utilise the experience of veteran campaigners. [162] This last edict was not enforced at all in the domains of Constantius and was applied in the domains of Maximian until his abdication in 305. Christian teachers lost their jobs, as Julian argued that it made little sense for them to teach pagan texts of which they did not approve. Throughout his life, Constantine ascribed his success to his conversion to Christianity and the support of the Christian God. Another 800 to 1200 light-armed soldiers (velites), often from Rome's allies, took position in front of the legion with 300 cavalry positioned in support. [232] It is said that Marcellus, a rigorist, purged all mention of Marcellinus from church records and removed his name from the official list of bishops. WebAfter defeating Maxentius in 312, Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard, ending the latter's 300-year existence. [13] Among the more credulous, Christians were thought to use black magic in pursuit of revolutionary aims[14] and to practise incest and cannibalism. This practice was applied on all the frontiers. "Master of Soldiers") commanded the larger diocesan comitatus (normally over 20,000-strong). Previous Roman helmet types, based ultimately on Celtic designs, were replaced by new forms derived from helmets developed in the Sassanid Empire. And in order that this plague of iniquity shall be completely extirpated from this our most happy age, let your devotion hasten to carry out our orders and commands. This was divided into two orders, the senatorial order (ordo senatorius), consisting of the c. 600 sitting members of the Roman Senate and their sons and grandsons, and the more numerous (several thousand-strong) equites or "knights". Generally, once conquered, only the women and children could hope to survive as an example had to be set of the futility of prolonged resistance. Exceptionally, these men were in command of limitanei regiments only. Maximinus probably spent the next few months in discussion with Galerius over his role in the imperial government, and did not have the time to deal with the Christians. Diocletian asserted that he had instituted a new era of security and peace; Lactantius saw the beginning of a cosmic revolution. Scholae units started the battle by an unauthorised attack on the enemy wagon circle, at a moment when their emperor Valens was still trying to negotiate a truce with the Goths. Soldiers could receive distinctions, money, booty, and promotion for displaying courage and initiative. [20], In the limitanei, most types of unit were present. [186] Other late 20th-century historians, like Graeme Clark and David S. Potter, assert that for all its hedging, Galerius's issuance of the edict was a landmark event in the histories of Christianity and the Roman empire. [309] At Strasbourg (357), the infantry showed remarkable skill, discipline and resilience throughout, saving the day at two critical moments. "[217], Period of persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (303-313), Abdications, instability, and renewed toleration, 305311, The Peace of Galerius and the Edict of Milan, 311313, Early pagan opponents of the Christians would see their God as a political criminal, executed under a governor of Judea for proclaiming himself "King of the Jews", and note that their holy texts included an allegorical attack on the Roman state that prophesied its imminent destruction (. The role of cavalry in the late army does not appear to have been greatly enhanced as compared with the army of the Principate. According to this view, cavalry increased significantly as a proportion of the total forces and took over the leading tactical role from the infantry. Apart from building great monuments to Christianity, Constantine now also became openly hostile toward the pagans. [259], Palestine is the only region for which an extended local perspective of the persecution exists, in the form of Eusebius's Martyrs of Palestine. [4] Around 112, Pliny,the governor of BithyniaPontus, was sent long lists of denunciations of Christians by anonymous citizens, which Emperor Trajan advised him to ignore. The captain of a vessel held centurion rank or the title of trierarchus. To the Romans, the observance of religious rites was a public duty rather than a private impulse. Whatever the defence strategy, it was apparently less successful in preventing barbarian incursions than in the 1st and 2nd centuries. [47], By the 3rd century, Romanised Illyrians and Thracians, mostly primipilares and their descendants, came to dominate the army's senior officer echelons. This is because the 2nd-century auxilia were not just equal in numbers to the legions as in the early 1st century, but some 50% larger. [227] The Donatists would not be reconciled to the Catholic Church until after 411. Mounted archers were stationed, together with light-armed slingers, in front of the main infantry line. [303] Maximinus began persecuting Church leaders before the end of 311. Land transport of military supplies on the cursus publicus (imperial transport service) was typically by wagons (angariae), with a maximum legal load of 1,500lbs (680kg), drawn by two pairs of oxen. Other architectural celebrations of victory included obelisks and columns but perhaps the most striking monument to Roman military vanity was the triumphal arch, the largest and most decorative being that of Constantine I in Rome. [331] Many simply fled. [58][notes 5] Its preamble insists that it is every emperor's duty to enforce the sacred precepts of Roman law, for "the immortal gods themselves will favour and be at peace with the Roman nameif we have seen to it that all subject to our rule entirely lead a pious, religious, peaceable and chaste life in every respect". These rules were relaxed only in emergencies, as during the military crisis of 4056 (Radagaisus' invasion of Italy and the great barbarian invasion of Gaul). Every night the legion would halt and erect a camp in this layout. However, it is likely that many ordinary regiments continued to possess integral artillery, especially in the border forces.[161]. The Acta Eulpi records the martyrdom of Euplus of Catania, a Christian who dared to carry the holy Gospels around, refusing to surrender them. Regimental officer grades in old-style units (legiones, alae and cohortes) remained the same as under the Principate up to and including centurion and decurion. These animals need to be able to move to survive., Why deforestation mattersand what we can do to stop it, Video Story, Copyright 1996-2015 National Geographic Society, Copyright 2015-2022 National Geographic Partners, LLC. Most notably they guarded the Sibylline Books and it was for them to consult these scriptures and interpret them when requested to do so by the senate. But the debate about defence-in-depth is still very much alive in academic circles. In AD 380 emperor Theodosius took the final step and made Christianity the official religion of state. Cataphracts carried a long, heavy lance called a contus, c. 3.65m (12ft) long, that was held in both hands. The Roman legions were a well-trained and highly disciplined fighting machine. Far more the empire was shocked into a new religious order. Julian the Apostate was no such man. In the new-style units, (vexillationes, auxilia, etc. [15], Nonetheless, for the first two centuries of the Christian era, no emperor issued general laws against the faith or its Church. This was done for certain provinces, in certain years, although the specific details are largely unknown. One of the primary problems of early Christianity was that of heresy. [33], The Decian persecution was a grave blow to the Church. Suggestions have been made that the limitanei were a part-time militia of local farmers, of poor combat capability. [52] (In addition, by 275 he evacuated the province of Dacia, removing the entire provincial population to Moesia, an act largely motivated by the same problem). A typical product of the military governing class of the later 3rd century, he was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, an army officer, and his wife (or concubine) Helena. His new legislation called for another general sacrifice, coupled with a general offering of libations. The greatest uncertainty concerns the size of the crack auxilia palatina infantry regiments, originally formed by Constantine. What was Constantines relationship with Christianity? Although some members of the laity were persecuted, the primary targets of official action were always the clergy and the more prominent lay Christians. However, there were also times when Romans more than met their match - such as against Carthage, Parthia and the Germanic tribes - or when Romans fought Romans such as the civil wars between Julius Caesar and Pompey or Vitellius against Otho, and then the carnage of ancient warfare reached even greater proportions. [51], The unique position of the Christians and Jews of the empire became increasingly apparent. The reformation of the empire's "moral fabric"and the elimination of religious minoritieswas simply one step in that process. But a number are denoted pseudocomitatenses, implying that they originally belonged to the border forces. They would serve ten years as novices, then ten performing the actual duties, followed by a final ten years of teaching the novices. Under this strategy, border-forces (limitanei) would not attempt to repel a large incursion. In addition, the lack of any reserves to the rear of the border entailed that a barbarian force that successfully penetrated the perimeter defences would have unchallenged ability to rampage deep into the empire before Roman reinforcements from other border garrisons could arrive to intercept them. A ditch would be dug around the perimeter of the camp, and the spoil used to erect a rampart, which would then be topped with a palisade of sharpened wooden stakes arranged cross-hatched to form an impenetrable screen. Troops were also trained to use these weapons well and to carry out complicated battle manoeuvres, although the duration and intensity of training was very much down to individual commanders. In response, the Danubian Junta pursued an aggressive policy of resettling defeated barbarian tribesmen on imperial territory on a massive scale. Peter of Alexandria was beheaded on November 26, 311. [115], The Christians of the empire were vulnerable to the same line of thinking. World History Foundation is a non-profit organization registered in Canada. The Kings An opposing force could be severely reduced in one blow, the local population could be suitably terrorised into accepting Rome as their new master and a readymade stronghold could be acquired if successful. It was the day they would terminate Christianity. [100], Modern scholar Peter Davies surmises that Eusebius is referring to the same event as Lactantius, but that he heard of the event through public rumors and knew nothing of the privileged discussion at the emperor's private religion ceremony that Lactantius had access to. [199] The late soldier's discharge package (which included a small plot of land) was also minuscule compared with a 2nd-century legionary's, worth just a tenth of the latter's.[200][201]. The Romans also used military intelligence, subterfuge, and siege warfare to better their enemies. They fought and defeated other Italian tribes, Gauls in western Europe, the Carthaginians in North Africa, and Celtic Britons in Britain. But these large comitatus were not established before 312, by which time there had not been a successful barbarian invasion for c. 40 years. From Egypt the worship of Isis and Osiris came to Rome at the beginning of the first century BC Cults such as those of Cybele or Isis and Bacchus were known as the mysteries, having secret rituals which were only known to those initiated into the faith. [41], Diocletian, acclaimed emperor on November 20, 284, was a religious conservative, faithful to the traditional Roman cult. Cartwright, Mark. In the West, after 395, the emperor was no longer in direct command of his diocesan comitatus chiefs, who instead reported to a military generalissimo (the late Roman equivalent to a pre-industrial-era Japanese shgun). Apart from their noisy parade through the streets, they would spend every evening feasting in a different house in the city. In this Byzantine mosaic, dating from the 9th century, the Virgin Mary and child are seated between the Emperors Justinian (left) and Constantine (right). In 303, the emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius issued a series of edicts rescinding Christians' legal rights and demanding that they comply with traditional religious practices. Things can be, have been, every bit as bad as our worst imaginings. [335], The pagan crowd was more sympathetic to the Christians' sufferings than they had been in the past. But the difference should not be exaggerated. The widespread use of conscription, the compulsory recruitment of soldiers' sons, the relaxation of age and height requirements and the branding of recruits all add up to a picture of an army that had severe difficulties in finding, and retaining, sufficient recruits. Pliny the Younger, as governor of Nithynia in AD 111, was so exercised by the troubles with the Christians that he wrote to Trajan asking for guidance on how to deal with them. He does not refer to his early letters, which encouraged avid persecution. Romanus would be executed on November 18, 303. [345] By the 5th century, Christianity was the empire's predominant faith, and filled the same role paganism had at the end of the 3rd century. Croix, have attempted to determine whether Christian sources exaggerated the scope of the Diocletianic persecution, but disagreements continue. World History Encyclopedia. [70] However, they were entitled to correspond directly with the emperor, as various imperial rescripts show. He may also have sought to fracture the Christian community by publicizing the fact that its clergy had apostatized. [361] The historian Min Seok Shin estimates that over 23,500 Christians suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, of whom the names of 850 are known. [83][notes 10] In the work, Porphyry expressed his shock at the rapid expansion of Christianity. To the Roman peasant the world around simply abound with gods, spirits and omens. [197], The soldier's sole substantial disposable income came from the donativa, or cash bonuses handed out periodically by the emperors, as these were paid in gold solidi (which were never debased), or in pure silver. the legions Ioviani and Herculiani);[218] (4) finally, some tribunes without a regimental command (tribuni vacantes), who served as staff-officers to the emperor or to a magister militum, might be granted the title. Regardless, in A.D. 313 Constantine met with Licinius, the eastern emperor, and together they issued the Edict of Milan. [96][145] Auxilia were only graded as palatini, emphasising their elite status, while the legiones are graded either palatini or comitatenses. Barbari ("barbarians") was the generic term used by the Romans to denote peoples resident beyond the borders of the empire, and best translates as "foreigners" (it is derived from a Greek word meaning "to babble": a reference to their incomprehensible languages). [319] He frames the new universal toleration as a means of removing all ambiguity and extortion. [225] In 311, Caecilian was elected bishop of Carthage. [6] The dearth of inscriptions leaves major gaps in our understanding of the late army and renders many conclusions tentative. [302] Julian in 35660 and Valentinian I in 36874 carried out several operations across the Rhine and Danube designed to force the submission of local tribes and their acceptance of tributarii status.[303]. Clarke, 62527; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 513; Rives, 135. The cavalry under both officers were integral to mixed infantry and cavalry comitatus, with the infantry remaining the predominant element. [164] According to Lactantius, Galerius had forced Diocletian's hand in the matter and secured the appointment of loyal friends to the imperial office. Firmilianus cut the tendons on their left feet, blinded their right eyes, and sent them to the mines of Palestine. A large palace and imposing legislative halls established the citys gravitas as the new capital. Indeed, until 363, power was held by descendants of one of the original Junta members. [323] According to one report that Barnes calls "plausible, if unverifiable", 660 Christians were killed in Alexandria alone between 303 and 311. , Reframing Art History, a new kind of textbook, Guide to AP Art History vol. [52][55] Although the precise terms under which these people were settled in the empire are unknown (and may have varied), the common feature was the grant of land in return for an obligation of military service much heavier than the normal conscription quota. Rome, however, was losing its luster for him. The resulting units may have been just half the strength of the parent units (unless a major recruitment drive was held to bring them all up to original strength). Diocletian remained in Antioch for the following three years. Religion The real winter soldiers behind the U.S.s newest national monument, See the beauty of Bhutan in a new cross-country trail, This new trail is revealing the wonders of Armenia to the world. WebAfter defeating Maxentius in 312, Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard, ending the latter's 300-year existence. [125] However, it appears that the western section was several times revised, in the period c. 400-25: e.g. Ammianus describes three major battles which were actually or nearly lost due to the incompetence or cowardice of the Roman cavalry. [120] Upon returning, the messenger told the court that "the just on earth"[121][122] hindered Apollo's ability to speak. [312] This section examines aspects of late tactics that differed significantly from tactics of the Principate. [50] Diocletian, by contrast, was willing to reform every aspect of public life to satisfy his goals. Even Homer himself is not wanting as a witness, since he records that Tydeus was small in body but a strong warrior".[177]. [231], It is possible that Vegetius' statements about the abandonment of armour were a misinterpretation by him of sources mentioning Roman soldiers fighting without armour in more open formations during the Gothic wars of the 370s. [304] Lucian of Antioch was executed in Nicomedia on January 7, 312. At the outset of his account of the general persecution in the Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius laments the incompleteness of his reportage: "how could one number the multitude of martyrs in each province, and especially those in Africa and Mauretania, and in Thebaid and Egypt? [118] The diocesan comitatus, on the other hand, had the task of supporting the border forces of their diocese in major operations. Prostitutes confessed, under judicial torture, to having engaged in debaucheries with Christians. (c) Border armies (exercitus limitanei). As the historian J. Liebeschuetz has written: "The final result of the Great Persecution provided a testimonial to the truth of Christianity which it could have won in no other way. After that, legionaries were trained to engage in aggressive hand-to-hand combat, using the gladius short-sword to execute quick thrusts at the abdomen of their enemies, in a similar manner to more recent bayonet drill. The Battle of Milvian Bridge outside Rome in A.D. 312 was a watershed moment for Constantine. [224], The persecution in Africa encouraged the development of Donatism, a schismatic movement that forbade any compromise with Roman government or traditor bishops (those who had handed scriptures over to secular authorities). The flamines acted as priests to individual gods: three for the major gods Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, and twelve for the lesser ones. It appears from the very slim available evidence that conscription was not applied evenly across provinces but concentrated heavily in the army's traditional recruiting areas of Gaul (including the two Germaniae provinces along the Rhine) and the Danubian provinces, with other regions presumably often commuted. [citation needed] These were grouped into 12 divisions called dioceses, each under a vicarius, in turn grouped into 4 praetorian prefectures, to correspond to the areas of command assigned to the four Tetrarchs, who were each assisted by a chief-of-staff called a praefectus praetorio (not be confused with the commanders of the Praetorian Guard, who held the same title). [194], In contrast to Roman recruits, the vast majority of barbarian recruits were probably volunteers, drawn by conditions of service and career prospects that to them probably appeared desirable, in contrast to their living conditions at home. The late army continued to win the great majority of its battles with barbarians. For example, illustrations in the Notitia Dignitatum, compiled after the reign of Gratian, indicate that the army's fabricae (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century. In addition, the Romans had an inclusive approach to conquered peoples which allowed for the strengthening and broadening of the Roman power and logistical bases. He spent the next 18 years battling the three other Roman rulershis rivalsto become the sole emperor. 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